A Satisfactory Alternative To Utilitarianism Proposals Philosophy Essay

A Satisfactory Alternative To Utilitarianism Proposals Philosophy EssayA Theory of arbiter by John Rawls presents a immensely more(prenominal) viable, workable, administrationatic, and satisfactory alternative to Utilitarianism proposals as a moral strategy. While Utilitarianism attempts to paste benefits and burdens across golf club with the goal of maximizing improvement, A Theory of Justice establishes the devil firstly article of faiths which ensure that each sh are of bon ton first permit access to basic liberties and secondly e trulyows for social and economic in impactities to be provided nightclub is structured so as to benefit those who be the to the last-place degree wellspring off. Addition all in ally, Rawls Original Position and soft palate of ignorance ensures that individuals go forth non stipulate up companionship so as to give themselves a great payoff, unless rather leave behind have an incentive to set up scheme of nicety which treat s all members of society fairly as they do not have the information through wich they could, with any degree of acceptedty, burn down the deck in their favor. In stemma with utileism Rawls assumes that justice not receipts is the overriding factor in creation of a good society.Additionally, Rawls principles atomic number 18 mavens that free and rational persons would accept under the original position with a veil of ignorance limiting individuals from creating an unfair advantage from the outset. Social contract theory is superior to utilitarianism precisely because it affords each person equal rights to the most coarse basic liberty in alignment with others in society whereas advantage-grade as an aim boasts no such ability.FIRST PRINCIPLESThe fight principle is the idea that actions taken in society should improve the expectations of the least(prenominal) advantaged members of society. that it shapes this in the lens of mutual advantage, or as I want to think of it, a tide raises all boats. Ultimately both persons are infract off. Rawls states that Inequation in expectation is permissible only if ominous it would make the working class even more worse off. With this in play, Greater expectations allowed to entrepreneurs encourages them to do things which raise the long term prospects of laboring class. The difference principle in effect takes a small sentiment of utility and applies it, in a different curriculum to the least well off. distinction BETWEEN PERSONSPerhaps Rawls greatest critique of Utilitarianism is in regards to the distinction of persons. Utilitarianism can only train to protect individual rights in so more as the single paramount aim of utility attains this through increases utility. As allow be notes later, utility is a horrible tool for achieving this aim.A Theory of Justiceis Rawlss creation with the goal to create a philosophy of justice that provides more satisfaction in the quest for a organization which aptly continues justice and individual liberties.His first two principles compass this and are as follows The first is that each person is to have an equal right to the most extensive basic liberty compatible with a sympathetic liberty for others. The second is that Social and economic inequalities are to be arranged so that a) they are to be of the greatest benefit to the least-advantaged members of society (the difference principle). b) offices and positions mustiness be open to everyone under conditions offair equality of opportunityFrom this ordering, equal liberty is first and foremost secured, folled by a more satisfactory social safety net that allows for economic advantage of some over others in so long as it benefits the least well off.Transitioning from this institution which respects the distinction of persons, Rawls begins his attacks on Utilitarianism. Utilitarianism in a misled effort, takes the logic that a single individual would rationally make to maximize the benef its and minimize burdens, and tries to apply them to society as a whole. You cannot apply the address and benefit logic made by one person to the incarnate of persons society wide. Rawls cont wind ups that this lends itself to situations where there is neglect for the separateness of persons in favor adding up the total happiness and is prone to the violation of basic rights and liberties, which in his quite a little are paramount. While it is perfectly logical for an individual to strive for maximal happiness for themselves, utilitarian theory is f righted in its attempts to apply these imaginations to society as a whole.Social contract theory, in a vastly better federal agency provides protection for individuals.Rawls uses examples such as Slavery and stifling of free speech to show how, conceivably, the suppression of ones rights could be allowed under utilitarianism. For example, envisage a society was make of a strong majority of population, whos inbuilt income was b ased upon the silence or labor of another class. Were this class of people to be given freedom of speech or rights to vote or freedom from forces labor, the entire society would collapse, resulting in a near recognize depletion of utility for the whole. at a lower place the principles of utilitarianism this liberation should not happen. In the quest to maximizeutility for all citizens other members of society must necessarily be denied any meaningful right or liberties to prop up the whole. Rawls sets up what he calls the the impartialspectator to illustrate this. This individual feels the wants and needs of all in society. From this all necking snap shot, this person determines the vanquish way to maximize utility overall.In doing this, the spectator may give certain groups higher priority over others due to the constraints of maximizing utility.Thus Rawls argues that potentially very little care will go toward the individual whose rights and freedoms could conceivably be negle cted becausethey make up a minority or insignificant factor in the overarching goal to maximize societies utility. From here, he states that Utilitarianism does nottake seriously the distinction between persons..Rawls asserts that his theory is an improvement from this since a theory of justice takes all person into account.The utilitarian response to this is of course that it is precisely by the focus upon achieving utility and would thereby argue that utility is best achieved when individual rights are protected. However, in contrast with Rawls second principle, the utilitarian idea does not particularly care what the spread of utility is across people. It may well be that utility is best served when all members of society are provided equal rights, but Rawls smirch is that there are oblige examples of where this could be completely untrue(e.g. Slavery).EQUILIBRIUMThe concept of equilibrium also very important in Rawls overall theory and the sustenance of the original position. If a departure from this situation sets in motion tendencies which restore it, the equilibrium is stable. What he means by this is since the agreement is freely struck between individuals and it provides the best situation for all parties involved within this system, there is a built in check on any activity threatening the system. Since the system maximizes individual interests, provided they are consistent with the rights and freedom of others, the majority of individuals will be benefiting from the system and will work to maintain it. In a way this is reminiscent of utilitarianism. While utility is not being directly calculated, by everyone playing by the rules, it is of maximum benefit to all involved. Essentially, his failsafe measure to preserve the Original Position is everyones desire to maximize his or her own utility. tariffAnother appeal for the theory of justice is its upholding of personal responsibility and that energising between society and individuals. While under his first principles, society is supercharged with ensuring liberties the flip side to this is that with this as a starting point,each individual is responsible for his or her life plan and choices as well as the consequences that emanate from them. A default on life plans, does not accept about legitimate grounds for compensation by society. Conversely, if a member succeeds well beyond those around them, this merit based achievement and wealth/happiness disparity is allowable, provided it benefit the least well off in society. In society owes the individual only to uphold the first principles, from there, distant utilitarianism there is a sort of empowerment of the individual.VEILRawls states that for this system to work, all citizens must see themselves asbeing behind a veil of ignorance.By this he means that all deciding partiesin establishing the guidelines of justice (all citizens) must see themselves asequal to everyone paying no chief to there economic situation or anyth ing elsethat they could keep in reason to negotiate a better situation to those qualities.For example, someone who will perplex wealthy would not be made aware of this due to the veil, and therefrom would not attempt to set up the tax code so as to benefit him over others. The individual has an incentive to do this as he or she may end up with the bad end of the deal when all the cards are laid on the table. This sets up a vastly more fair system than utilitarianism can provide. With utilitarianism, a majority could very easily take a look at the way this will play out, and shift them to be in their favor, and this would be allowed should it maximize the total utility.Another timid area for utilitarianism is in regards to what Rawls asserts in his statement that even where laws and institutions are unjust, it is often better that they should be consistently applied. In this way those subject tot them at least know what is demanded and they can try to protect themselves according ly. Expectations are critical. It is important that even if the law is unjust, that it is consistent and clear. The situation that arises out of an unjust and inconsistent law, is that you have a populace unable to shield themselves or judge what their behavior should be to avoid punishment. Utilitarianism, by its very nature offers no such similar consistency since its goal is not justice, but rather utility. It is possible that randomly, one act or another could be made illegal or taxed with the known result that it will increase utility. Of course the counter claim to this is that maximizing utility leads to justice, but again there are unmeasured examples where this would be untrue. I find in solidarity with Rawls in that justice is better served in the contractarian system over the utilitarian system. If the utilitarian system aims to exactly have the most happiness spread to the most people possible, where is the justice for those who fall between the cracks of this system a nd are sacrificed as a obligatory evil to the happiness of the many?Additionally, the idea that one injustice will compensate for the other, which on the surface, seems to be what utilitarianism promotes I find no basis in human reasoning. Under the veil of ignorance this would never be allowed. His concept of democratic equality is an alternative to utilitarianism which is vastly more appealing.He goes on to claim that the reason for the predominance of utilitarianism is due to the vast amount of well refined and impressive writings on the subject. He notes that the great writers for this system were social theoreticians and economists first and foremost and secondly worked to hash out theories in their writings with which to support and fine turn their beliefs. Throughout the 19th and twentieth century there was near monopoly of thought from the major philosophical theorist in support of utilitarianism.I tend to agree with Rawls in his confidence that these theories received a very secluded amount of scrutiny toward Utilitarianisms weak points. While the positives of the system were well distributed and known, the skeptical voices were given a less(prenominal) widespread audience.I also agree with Rawls in his belief that their must be an alternative option available to people and that pointing out the flaws of utilitarians isnt enough. A choice must be given and is given in A Theory of Justice.. It is never enough to simply sit back and point the finger in a critique. Rather, an alternative must and is provided by Rawls.Rawls also defeats utilitarianism in the battle for a balance between liberty and equality. Under his first principles, liberty is adequately served in that he understands that there will always arises a disparity of wealth within society, but then(prenominal) with his second principle he establishes a check upon the trampling of the lowest in society. In Rawls view, this is fair due to the veil and essential aspect is the securing of ba sic liberties for all as in his first principle. In contrast however, when utility becomes the be all end all to be achieved in a society, you end up in a system that will result in the complete disregard for individual differences and desires.CONCLUSIONpatronage the huge differences between utilitarianism and the social contract system which Rawls supports, both theories have the same aims. Both attempt to put its actors onto an even playing field, but go about different ways in trying to achieve this. It seems clear that A Theory of Justice gives us a vastly more satisfactory alternative to Utilitarianism. A Theory of Justice establishes the two first principles which provide for basic liberties and secondly allows for individual success in society and inequalities to exist provided the and increase in inequality would benefit those who are the least well off. The veil of ignorance also lays out an incentive for fairness. In essence, Rawls appears to have better grasp upon the bas ic motivation and nature of human beings. He shows this in his emphasis on individual differences within society and his acceptance of the values of justice, not utility as the measure of a good society.

Aligning Operations and SCM with Other Functional Strategies

Aligning Operations and SCM with Other Functional Strategies1. Discuss the brilliance of maculationing trading trading mathematical actions and SCM with opposite functional strategies (e.g. Design, Marketing and Finance) in creating a practicable championship schema.Skinner pretends us a broad picture of how we run across at the business as a whole moving remote from sub optimization which he has criticised it and making choices that atomic number 18 sensible and how entrust compete on the securities industryplace. Skinners work introduced the grandness of the concept of trade-offs and the need to ordain the tar ashess to what market real require on that proposefore the sub-functional trade-off choices are strategic altogethery aligned with aboriginal manufacturing tasks.Hill come with the concept of OWC and offer criteria and highlights the fact that focus should be on what important to the customer and a organisation require a common objective and every no npareil on the scheme is focus on common objective.Rumack Pharmaceuticals is an example of marketing strategy where they draw practically of variants of that ing rosy-cheekedient, different pills, different potions, different bottle sizes, different packages because they dwarfish way of exploiting market probability. The cost of manufacturing is low-down compare to the value of the crossing because of the paten and the manufacturing was bottlenecked in this situation. In this scale manufacturing room to be subordinate to the opportunity of the business and the nature of the product should be supporting the market opportunity.They set aside up with potentiality chores and long setup snips as they did not unders as well asd the implications of higher potpourri on that efficacy. Higher variety agent to go either for large batches still homogeneouswise have a bun in the oven-take or smaller batches and where capacity is to a greater extent absorbed thru setup.Tynd all B is an early(a) example where marketing influenced where company went. Manufacturing invested a lot of effort in soften and their process choice was to go for standard high bulk plainly the consume was more than they would coop with. So marketing made them flavour at skid wells but case goods would not give them so oft return. They were not good in manufacturing producing case goods so the clams was declining. But why they did not invested more in remands and chairs rather than disbursement on galleries where marketing jabbingn to produce a full begin of products causing variety to go up and profits down. They was not paying attention of what manufacturing is capable of delivering. They werent aligned. Compare to Rumack there is no paten but there is capability which erect be exploited. For some(prenominal) companies idea of coalescency strategy was to be for volume and variety. Referring to Babcock Wilcox case study they mix up trade-offs choices because wha t is good for high volume is not good for low volume and choices take to be aligned.Regarding Finance operation strategy from Skinner point of opinion was all rough avoiding local cost and local efficiency. Focus operations on rescue, speed, price and every oneness work together to align themselves. Also he present that quite often in factories every department exploit to optimise local cost and efficiency which encourage push and run thinking. Local optimisation is not aligning with the frame and we substructure face evidence of that at Rumack Pharmaceutical where basically in manufacturing you need to be align with the strategy thats being adopted which is all introducing new products resulting in new product capacity which should not happen as leave require more capacity in the system. Going for higher variety allow for put more pressure on capacity because of the setups. Tyndall they had really good arrangements in equipment casualty of producing tables and chair co lonial style lots of subscribe for them but they wont exploit it because they said that there is no capacity for that so they went for case goods. Problem was that case goods was providing throughput but no revenue. They were doing everything rather then introduceing throughput per bottleneck/minute. There was no alignment to improve throughput per limiting factor or to understand what constraints are and if is a market or resource constraint.Coming to Design from an operation point of view we would like standardisation. From market point of view they want customization. So product excite to be measured as much as we cigaret and have the ability to customise later(a)r in other words to postpone it and reduce division and introduce the winging options as late as possible. Postponement is used to achieve customisation and efficiency at bottom one in operation(p) system.2 critically discuss how developing operational unspoilteousness force out support and lead a business s trategy.Porter argue that operational effectiveness is not a strategy and also run for and TOC are not strategies because they quarter be copied. Lean, TQM, TOC are all astir(predicate) managing fragile in organisation with the idea of cost, push and drag. The main headway is how terminate we improve performance and rid absent of trade-offs or how can we break them.Slack et al. (2004) argue that there are five operations performance objectives cost, role, speed, dependability and flexibility. The jurisprudence of trade-offs states that no single plant can provide high performance in all dimensions simultaneously. We would expect to pay back support for this law if all competitors use similar technologies and are in operation(p) near the asset frontier. If all plants are far from the asset frontier, however, one plant can simultaneously provide higher directs of product quality, flexibility, and delivery at a lower manufactured cost if, through betterment, its centeri ng approaches create an operating frontier which is superior to its competitors. The theory of performance frontiers clarifies the impacts that assets and operating practices have on competitive advantage. However, the resource- ground view took this thinking a measure further through positing that competitive advantage can be free burning only if the capabilities creating the advantage are supported by resources that are not easily duplicated by competitors. Both the asset and the operating frontier can be the source of competitive advantage but they are found on resources of different nature.Armed with an understanding of a firms operating position relative to both competitors and the performance frontiers, strategic planners are better equipped to evaluate and plan manufacturing initiatives. For example, a quality improvement initiative may well be more attractive than a new engine room initiative to a firm that overturns itself far from its asset frontier.Can operation not just follow business strategy and lead business strategy? Hayes and Wheelwright stage 4 evidence that.In 80s quality and lean was a paradigm shift. Operation capability can truly win the orders. Porter(96) argue that Japanese dont have a strategy as they have operational effectiveness which wins on short term but actually Toyota payoff system is still difficult to copy on long term. Thus, the process of strategy development should be based on a sound understanding of electric current operational capabilities and an analysis of how these could be developed in the future. This can then provide the basis for decisions slightly which markets are likely to be the best in which to deploy current and future capabilities, which competitors are likely to be most vulnerable and how attacks from competitors big businessman best be countered (Hayes et al., 2005).organization fits with the resource-based view (RBV) .toc lean etc3 very much evaluate the means of alter clear (e.g. producti on, project and diffusion) referring to the design of a specific planning and control system.Lead time requirements of the customers tend to drive the OPP towards the customer whereas product variability and demand incredulity drive it away from customer. The more product variables, less likely it is economically sustainable to discover every variable in transmission line. thence, often large and steady volume products are kept in ancestry whereas products with a lot of edition are either assembled- or made-to order. Thus, companies have often multiple OPPs depending on the product characteristics.MTS method of production reduces before demand is realise or before orders come in.This are some goods or builds based on capacity or forecast which more often are great than current demand. This is the reason that stocks are made only to be stored or sold at some future date.MTO builds according to actual demand. This system wont produce stock as all outputs are consumed or sold i mmediately. MTO is a pull system since every station doesnt bulge out processing unless pull by demand or next process. Therefore we can talk about a pull line or JIT line. This is a type of MTO system in which all work move are strictly produce according to the takt time. JIT is also known as a lean system or Kanban system. Kanban system control the flow thru a form of electronic or physical signal which regularize to start producing or deliver the next part. In the case of MTO the boilersuit approach is termed Drum Buffer forget me drug (DBR).Pull means small batches and we try get as required by the system. JLR is a pull system because everyone is working at the pace of the system. They relishing car or raw material into the system at the plant rate and everyone is working at the management prescribed rate called takt time.Ohno didnt had physical restriction of quadrangle but he had this rule to do something only if you have a Kanban instruction, the signal. crossways mov ing assembly line physical space was the control, the signal. Kanban was the idea of account in the system and TOC BM was another signal what do I do next? When do I expedite? When do I interfere with the process? Ford had pretty much a lean system that why Ohno quoted from fords book. There is a more complex surround but the principles are the same. planning of stock or raw materials or finished stock in excess is a waste(ford 1926,p99).Ford understood the importance of the flow. He forced everyone to work on the same pace and had the idea of flow line. Ford was applying principles of flow to an environment where it was not so much variety.Ohno had variety and apply principles of flow thru JIT and C.I. linked to law of variability and variability moderateing and theory Theory of Swift and Even Flow. He put a lot of effort in minimizing the fluctuations, stabilizing the demand and reduce variability. Ford didnt had Jidoka but he had teams which responded fast. C. I. challenged th e traditional trade-offs model. Batch size reduction was the key for lean (Schronburger 1982).Right from the beginning was all about how to reduce batch quantities and setup time which is interpreted like a source of variability in the process. Batches will be reduced till will create a bottleneck again. Reducing setup times will reduce variability. Kanban represents inventory but also time and they are interrelated. In JLR they have a fast response and they doing first order which is coming compare to pilot light management. In the case of MTO the overall approach is termed Drum Buffer Rope (DBR) introduced by Goldratt(1990) to reduce variation and improve activity. In the next case study SDBR was used with time being the rope and organize the market demand. The drum previously was the roasting and char grill departments which were considered constraints.In the case of Freshcut Foods when it was to manage the flow they was releasing work in the system to first and cause quali ty issues and wastages. They had late demands but they were uncertain if they have the capacity to produce. So they needed a system to tell them if they have capacity to take the orders. Finally a system which can tell them how to grade what they should produce next and when to release the working to the system was put in practice. If is in the red partition off they need to expedite if the red zone is amazeing means that they have a problem and they need to come out it.. So Kanban is like an automatic system where everyone knows how to use it.4 Critically evaluate the circumstances best suited to Kanban and Buffer Management pull systems.Benton (2014, 2) describe that the main objective of manufacturing planning and control function is to find that the desired products are manufactured at the right time, in the right quantities, and meeting quality specifications in the most cost-effective manner.To illustrate the logical implication of BM in TOC, the functions of BM in TOC i s compared with Kanban in TPS. Firstly, both BM and Kanban prioritise work orders albeit with different assumptions and mechanisms. For Kanban, there is a pre-planned quantity or WIP in archetypes designed in between every work center. In addition, there is also a specific routing sequences or dedicated production line required for each product, which results in rigidity in responding to market requirements. In BM however, the priority of work is triggered by the percentage buffer penetration of completion time. As it is time-based, it allows each work center to have flexibility to react (or catch-up with time) to disruptions when Murphy strikes. Other than the function of prioritisation, both BM and Kanban have their own mechanism to monitor and control their production throughput. In Kanban, the deployment of distributed buffers in between work centers enables problems to be immediately surfaced and dealt without passing the problem to the subsequent work centers (Ohno, 198930). In TOC, aggregated buffer is deployed and thus has a certain waiting as problems are only escalated and expedited for attention aft(prenominal) entering into the Red zone of BM. However, as highlighted by Stratton and Knight (2010), though Kanban is more sensitive, the problems highlighted are mainly related to quality and process, whereas in BM, it also includes issues such as product volume and mix changes. In shock of these differences, both BM and Kanban advocates continuous improvement. This is seen in the final steps of both TPS Pursue Perfection (Womack and Jones, 199690) and TOC not to allow inertia to cause a systems constraint (Goldratt and Cox, 2004307). In Kanban, continuous improvement is encouraged through cut inventory to expose problems which then can be puted whereas in BM, causes of delay (Red zone penetration) are being targeted.5. Critically evaluate the use of MTA and driving buffer management as a means of practically enabling a pull distribution system.V MI regularize communicate demand and stock directs thru the system and replenish them on the regular basis. Replenish on the stock target MTA is similar with VMI but give a priority figure in terms of buffer penetration.DBM is less common as the buffer status signals whether the target level is too large or too small and this can be used to signal automatic adjustments. By monitoring how we are performing in terms of green,yellow and red we can determine whether we need to increase or decrease the stock target For example if we are in the green zone reduce stock target and if is in the red zone increase the stock target. It is the means of getting the system to work at the pace of the consumption where drum is the consumer so is signalling down to distribution system what we need to replenish and how fast which resulting in an idea of pull.In the case of Frozen Meals they replenish based on consumption on the 3rd party distributor so is very straight forward till the stock time. MTA will say if there are multiple orders in the system will give an indication what the priority is. If the consumption was high and replenishing the full quantity in the distribution depot will be less stock. This stock will have to be replenish very quickly so VMI will communicate consumption across the whole write out normally replenishing it within a day or couple of days. So all the demand in the distribution depot will go in the red zone. So VMI says communicate demand and stock level always thru the system and replenishing to the stock target.The problem come when Frozen Meals tried to replenish and couldnt because the warehouse was full. Analysing demands and orders there is obviously that demands are pretty stable and orders are more volatile in demand represented by the consumption of consumer in Weatherspoon. This difference was caused by 3rd party distributer which has his own warehouse and has more stock that he needed and fluctuating and planning orders ad hoc. Bec ause placing order in ad hoc manors caused Frozen Meals to ask for 7 days delay of publish. The ordering system from 3rd party distributer was ad hoc. There was a stock target so why not just replenish this stock automatically communicate down the supply chain whats required.The solution was to go for VMI rather than 3rd party distributer placing orders on Frozen Meals. A pull system was created when the supplier is prudent for maintaining agreed target stock levels.6 Discuss the strategic importance of postponement through configuration, packaging and distribution, making reference to the concept of an rank Penetration Point (OPP).In the first part I was discussing about focus factory and separating different orders. This can be also fall apart by postponing which means that will be 2 strategies. one at the first part of the supply chain which is looking to stabilise and standardise and a different strategy at the later stages with a decupling point. How can we design the suppl y chain to postpone the impact of variation and uncertainty? This can be done in the manufacturing process but distribution side as well.Skinner strategy is about how we take the system perspective and how we meet the needs of the market reducing variability in the process. With TQM the reason why ends up with variability in the process is that no-one consider how to reduce variation. This is what SPC done to focus on variation which will bring the cost down. Unless will do that then the variability tend to be there which make the trade-off choices about quality and cost. So all of them are about reducing variability.Agility is about dealing with demand uncertainty and demand variability. Stability is associated with lean and uncertainty demand with agility. This table is similar with line vs jobbing looking for both extremes such as delivery speed and low cost. Skinner will argue that this should be two different factories because the owc are differentFisher model talking in the i dea of Skinner operation trade-offs in terms of a supply chain. If we have variability in demand we need to buffer like any variation. The ideal efficient model will have flow, stripped variation in demand and process, minimum buffering. In contrast the reactive model demand varies and also product changes in the same time and we got demand uncertainty and we ll buffer with inventory capacity.Talking about lean and agile supply viewed in terms of dependency, fluctuation, buffer capacity and buffer inventory we can refer to law of variability, law of variability buffering, law of variability pooling.Talking about service it represents the customer input which can be put on MTS which can be a date, a forecast. MTA say that the priority of the order all depends on what stock level is, if the stock level goes down rapidly the priority goes up, if the stock level is not priority (demand is low) the priority goes down.In Lego case they was doing bad because they grow over the years resu lting in too much variety as increasing number of elements, to many colours and they diversified to do other things(low of focus)As a start-up they cut the number of colours and elements (no elements to be curious to one product stated by the law of variability pooling).In manufacturing they section some of the machines as all machines should be able to do everything. They organised and streamlined how they going to manufacture elements. They rationalized the suppliers which is a lean thing. The distribution changed to a pull system and the they supply to one distribution centre in Europe in 3-4 days which is consider closer to the customer. In terms of packaging machines and capacity. By reducing the range of colours and elements setup process variability all this helped to reduce variation and uncertainty. Buffering packaging they postponed rather than dimension stock in packets they opted for a centralized distribution centre and more frequent distributions. All this system wa s about flow.Production is lean if is courtly with minimal waste due to unneeded operations, inefficient operations, or profligate buffering in operations. Production is agile if it efficiently changes operating states in response to uncertain and changing demands placed upon it ( Narasimban et al..,2006)ReferencesBenton, W. C. Jr. 2014. Supply Chain focussed Manufacturing Planning and Control. Stamford, Connecticut Cengage Learning

Barriers to Healthcare for Diabetic Ethnic Minorities

Barriers to wellnessc be for Diabetic Ethnic MinoritiesComparing Barriers to Health flush in Diabetic Ethnic Minorities in Urban Versus Rural SettingsNoreen ChoudharyIssue/ businessThere has been abundant inquiry d one(a) in the deliberate of heathenish minorities and their gateway to health c be. Attention has been paid to common bars such as language, cognition and communication, which argon all culturally influenced. Most of this inquiry has foc expendd on general get on shotion shot to healthcare and not specific illnesss. There is actually little reserach on comparing barriers that come by and through depending on hole. The issue I would be exploring in my guide is determining the differences in likely barriers that exist in access to healthcare among heathenish minority diabetic individuals in urban versus rural settings. The potential barriers in access should differ depending on the location since the type and amount of resources record varies in both se ttings. This study hopes to contri exactlye to the literature by focusing on diabetes and determining the differences in barriers that exist for social minorities in the urban versus rural settings.BackgroundThe regions with the sterling(prenominal) incidence of diabetes are Africa and Asia, where the rates are expected to rise cardinal or three times (Oldroyd, Banerjee, Heald Cruickshank, 2005). The three countries with the heightsest prevalence of diabetes are USA, china and India (Oldroyd et al., 2005). The largest increases are expected in Brazil, Indonesia, Bangladesh , Pakistan and Japan (Oldroyd et al., 2005). Type 2 diabetes is near common among heathen minority assorts residing in developed countries (Oldroyd et al., 2005). Diabetes is a inveterate illness that requires continuing medical attention as well as self-management education (American Diabetes Association, 2002).Renfrew et al. (2013) reported on barriers to care benefaction in a Kampuchean population ne ar Boston. The study highlighted the importance of a culturally sensitive healthcare governance for Cambodians (Renfrew et al., 2013). The headwayers bear the following barriers in access to healthcare patients views of chronic disease, diabetes management, communication, psycho- loving agentive roles, diabetes etiology and explanatory theoretical accounts and fears of interacting with the healthcare system (Renfrew et al., 2013). The investigators were advocating for a culturally sensitive approach to healthcare for this population beca example most of the barriers determine were culturally influenced. Some of these culturally influenced barriers were patients mistrust in the western model of health, replacement by alternative medicine, belief that western medicine is an moment cure, and desire to please the practicians (Renfrew et al., 2013). Researchers give these barriers among other which were influenced by cultural beliefs of the patients (Renfrew et al., 2013).Smit h, Garie, and Schmitz (2014) illustrated self-reported employ of diabetes healthcare services in a Quebec community-based sample. The study found that masses with major depression were much(prenominal) likely to be high users or non-users of diabetes healthcare services (Smith, Garie, Schmitz, 2014). People with major depression reported much problems with accessing diabetes healthcare services (Smith, Garie, Schmitz, 2014). People with major depression comprehend more problems with the healthcare they received (Smith, Garie, Schmitz, 2014). The results also showed that large number with major depression perceived problems with the length of time they had to wait to see a doctor, that there is a neglect of specialist care in their area and are more likely to report having problems getting to the doctor due to transportation and health problems (Smith, Garie, Schmitz, 2014). The low service users represent a particularly vulnerable group who may privation to be targeted by interventions in order to further them to visit a doctor (Smith, Garie, Schmitz, 2014). The finding in this study was of import because it showed that perceived problems with accessing healthcare services could impact utilization of healthcare.Wagner et al. (2013) reports on the do of trauma on the risk for disease development and access to healthcare. amiable health problems among south-east Asian refugees are well known scarce the long term affects of mass violence as re-settled refugees age are less well described (Wagner et al., 2013). This study investigated both potential relationship that may exist between trauma symptoms, self-reported health outcomes, and barriers to healthcare among Cambodian and Vietnamese persons in Connecticut (Wagner et al., 2013). Healthcare access and occurrence were deliberate regarding patient-provider chthonicstanding, cost and access, and interpretive services (Wagner et al., 2013). Individuals with greater levels of trauma symptoms were associated with greater lack of actualiseing, cost and access problems, and the need for an interpreter (Wagner et al., 2013). Although these Southeast Asian immigrants arrived to get together States as refugees more than 20 years ago, there continues to be high levels of trauma symptoms among this population which are associated with increased risk for disease and decrease access to healthcare services (Wagner et al., 2013). This article was interesting because it didnt imply the usual barriers we talk just about when it comes to access to healthcare (such as language).The stand article I found was titled, Diabetes care quality is a headspring of location by The military press Association. The article talks about the mensuration of diabetes healthcare in England depending on a postcode lottery (The weigh Association, 2013). The quality of care patients receive depends whether its provided by a GP or a hospital, it depends on the location (The librate Association, 20 13). The report found big regional differences in patients access to quality, integrated care (The Press Association, 2013). Some areas were four times more likely to get yearbook checks needed to manage their conditions (The Press Association, 2013). This article is similar to my look into encounter however instead of rural and urban settings, it focused on location in scathe of where healthcare was sought, a clinic, hospital, or GP (The Press Association, 2013).Purpose/Aim of your ProjectThe aim of my seek proposal is to put down any potential barriers that may exist in access to healthcare among ethnic minority diabetics in rural versus urban settings. My original enquiry proposal was investigating potential barriers in access to healthcare among ethnic minority diabetics without the location promoter. When I started looking up literature, I found there was already enough information in this area and my research wouldnt add anything distinctive to this field. I started re ading more articles and doing a literature review, I didnt find any studies comparing potential barriers in urban and rural settings. After reviewing the comments I received from the professor after the first assignment, I was actively looking for gaps in research when reading articles. Therefore, I decided to alter my original question after I found this gap. If there are differences in the types of barriers present in these ii distinct settings, then hopefully my research would bring this to the psyche of healthcare providers and policymakers and would result in equitable care in urban and rural settings.Rationale/justificationCanada is known for its multiculturalism with Ontario being the most ethnically diverse province 3. Almost 13.4% of Canadians identified themselves as being a visible minority in the 2001 census 3. Since diabetes is most prevalent in ethnic minorities and Canada is one of the most ethnically diverse countries, its intelligible why there is an abundance of research in this field.There is a currently a gap in research that my research would potentially fulfill. While reading articles present in my field of interest, I couldnt find any that comparabilityd barriers in access to healthcare present in urban versus rural settings. This sort of information is necessary for policymakers to reduce or even eliminate these barriers to contact high quality of care for diabetic individuals in the future. If the results conclude that the barriers present in the urban settings differ from the ones present in the rural setting, then there is work to be done. We essential ensure health equity when it comes to access to healthcare and eliminate any geographical factors that come into play. We must ensure healthy places for all individuals scarce especially diabetics who require a lot of loving and medical support. Also, the need for culturally appropriate health care to accommodate the unique inevitably of ethnic minorities. The other research g ap I found was studies didnt talk about information loss during translations, either during patient and practitioner interactions or researcher and patient interactions. I think its an main(prenominal) factor to consider in studies consisting of subjects who speak another language. For instance, in one study the researchers found that patients didnt understand the concept of chronic disease and I hope that this was due to information loss during translation. Therefore, the purpose of this study is to provide healthcare professionals with information on the contrary barriers that exist among urban and rural settings in order to achieve health equity.Researchable research questionThe research question for my study is What are potential barriers in access to health care among ethnic minorities with diabetes in the urban versus the rural settings? able guidepostsOntology is the theory of being or what man importantly is, in social sciences it is closely linked with ethical implicat ions (David Sutton, 2011). The base premise of phenomenological ontology is that for humans candor is not something separate from its appearance (David Sutton, 2011). The way we think about ourselves is fundamental to what we are (David Sutton, 2011). For me, I think that health is a fundamental horizon of being human, its a basic right and an underlying factor in our existence. All individuals should have access to healthcare and this access should be equitable, regardless of ones location.The particular epistemological (theory of knowledge) stance (positivist, searing theoretical or interpretivist) result be grounded in assumptions about the basic character of being human (David Sutton, 2011). My research project is rooted in the interpretivist paradigm because I believe that access to healthcare is an important verbalism of being human. Health is an important part of being human and to achieve this health, we need a culturally sensitive and acceptable healthcare system for ethnic minorities.Axiology is about the appreciates each individual has and its influence on their research print. There are no value-free sociologies, values are foundational for knowledge-producing systems print. The composition of this study began with a personal experience I have with diabetes but eventually filtered out to form a researchable question that could add value to the field. Coming from a background in biology, we are taught that there is something do by with the body and it needs to be fixed, that health is solely a biologic factor. This was purely based in a positivist paradigm which is line up with quantitative research. I believe that healthcare access regardless of ethnicity, location, age, sex, or gender is crucial for all humans. Coming from a country with a poor healthcare system also influences my view in terms of healthcare access. I believe that health has a strong social component which cannot be measured quantitatively and thus I pick out an in terpretivist and qualitative approach for my study.The best way to undergo my study would be by utilizing a qualitative approach, more specifically, open-ended interviews. I motive to gain brain wave into the barriers that are present for each individual from these ethnically diverse backgrounds. I destiny to understand their perspective and beliefs, and how these influence their use of the healthcare system. After I understand these barriers, I will compare the difference in the types of barriers that are present among those living in the urban and rural settings. Since I am using open ended interviews, I believe the best rhetorical choice would be passive. I believe the participants in the study should have the freedom to talk in learning about the issue at hand. I dont exigency to influence their answers in any way but at the kindred time they should have the opportunity to freely express themselves. Especially in my study which includes ethnic minorities, there may be lang uage barriers present so this freedom to answer freely would be a confident(p) for the participants.Interpretive/theoretical frameMy research project will be embedded in the interpretive paradigm. More specifically, I will be adopting the constructionism theory. Constructionists focus on how people piss meaningful social reality for themselves through their interactions and thereby create a sense of order through shared beliefs (David Sutton, 2011). Constructionists adopt qualitative approaches such as interviews and unstructured manifestation (David Sutton, 2011). I believe that culture is important in defining health, it influences our deportment in terms of how we access and utilize our healthcare system. For example, Renfrew et al. (2013) talked about how peoples perceptions on chronic illness affected their use of the healthcare system. Ones culture, beliefs, views and attitudes affects their behaviour in terms of healthcare use. This is pertinent to my research project because I want to understand the barriers that exist for ethnic minorities with diabetes but with the added element of comparing these barriers in two settings urban and rural.ReferencesAmerican Diabetes Association. (2002). Standards of medical care for patients with diabetes mellitus. Diabetes Care, 25, 533-549.David, M., Sutton, C. (2011). Social research An introduction. London Sage Publications.Oldroyd, J., Banerjee, M., Heald, A., Cruickshank, K. (2005). Diabetes and ethnic minorities. Postgrad Medical Journal, 81, 486-490.Renfrew, M. R., Taing, E., Cohen, M. J., Betancourt, J. R., Pasinski, R., Green, A. R. (2013). Barriers to care for Cambodian patients with diabetes Results from a qualitative study. Journal of Health Care for the Poor and Undeserved, 24(1), 633-655.Smith, Garie, Schmitz (2014). Self-reported use of diabetes healthcare services in a Quebec community-based sample impact of depression status. Public Health, 128, 63-69.The Press Association. (2013, Decembe r 10). Diabetes care quality is question of location. Nursing Times. Retrieved from http//www.nursingtimes.net/home/clinical-zones/diabetes/diabetes-care-quality-is-question-of-location/5066307.articleWagner et al. (2012). Trauma, healthcare access, and health outcomes among Southeast Asian refugees in Connecticut. Journal Immigrant Minority Health, 15, 10651072.Peer Feedback FormIs it make pass what issue or problem the root will investigate through this study? Explain.Yes, the author is studying healthcare access by immigrants from two different backgrounds those from developed countries and those from underdeveloped countries. It is evident in the assignment what the researcher will be trying to determine and why they have elect to do so. There is a gap in understanding barriers in access to healthcare that exist between immigrants from developing countries and those from developed countries.Is the approach chosen, qualitative or quantitative a worthy choice, and will it bring insight into the research question? Explain.The approach is qualitative and this is a suitable choice. Since the researcher wants to understand why people over or under use the healthcare system and wants their opinion/views, its best to use a qualitative approach. By using interviews, for example, they can gain insight into the factors that influence people to use or not use the healthcare system in their country.Has the author explained connections to the literature, including what gaps exist in our knowledge about the topic? Explain.Yes, the author has put acrossly explained why they want to do this research and what gap it will fill. They have mentioned that previous research has been done on immigrants and access to healthcare, however, none have focused on the differences in this access based on country of origin (developed/developing).Are the aims of this project clear and well written? Explain.Yes, the aims are quite clear. The author wants to understand the factors that foreclose immigrants from using the healthcare system based on their country of origin, the occidental or Eastern countries. They want to compare these factors and understand if any differences exist.Is the research question clearly stated? Is it researchable? Does it fit well within approach the author has selected? Explain.The question is clearly stated and is researchable. It will fit with the qualitative approach that the researcher has chosen because it will allow them to understand from the immigrants views why they chose or didnt choose to utilize the healthcare system. They want to understand the barriers that exist for them individually and thus, the best approach is to use qualitative methods.Has the author properly and convincingly used the intellectual guideposts for research, explaining her or his project and position relative to these? Explain.Yes, the author used the intellectual guideposts to explain her position on each one. The use of the constructionism theory in this research proposal makes sense. They want to understand the barriers that exist for each individual and this is influenced by how people create and perceive their realities, the basis of constructionism.Is it clear which paradigm and theoretical frame will be used in this study? Explain.It is quite evident that this research is based on the interpretive paradigm. As she stated in this assignment, The largest factor guarding our interpretations of the social world is culture. This perfectly fits with this research study because Im sure that most of the barriers that exist in access to healthcare are influenced by culture. This is especially true for most immigrants who come from countries that are different culturally.What suggestions can you make or ideas can you bring to enhance the boilersuit clarity of the proposal? Explain.Overall the assignment was very well done, however, Im just wondering if you are concentrating on new or long term immigrants. I think this would potenti ally affect the types of barriers that are present. For example, language or knowledge would be more of a barrier for newer immigrants. Maybe you could control for this aspect, as it could be a potential confounder. heartfelt luck1

Determinants of Health Insurance Choices

Determinants of wellness policy ChoicesCHAPTER ONEINTRODUCTION accentuate to the Problemwellness cargon financial support in developing countries keep on a indemnity issue with few countries able to spend the $34 per capita recommended by the World wellness Organisation as minimum fate for basic wellness cargon. Lack of financial resources to adequately fill up the change magnitude engage for wellness cargon needs of the Afri burn down population go on a unappeasable job, and is becoming much(prenominal) critical in the consideration of increasing incidences of non- communicable diseases.Consequently, thither see been attempts by African governments to search different methods of wellness bearing support. The 2005 World wellness Assembly support its member states to move towards achieving humankind-wide obliterateage. Universal reporting does non exactly relate to generation of wellness tutelage finances besides implies integrity in overture and g uaranteed financial luck protection. As it is the desire of primitively countries to move towards a system of universal damages coverage,6 it is argued that irrespective of the source of financial support for the wellness system selected, pre fetchment and pooling of resources and risks arbasic principles in financial-risk protection. Further recognition of the importance of universal coverage for countries led to the WHO proposing the 2010 World Health Report to address financing for universal wellness coverage (UHC).Since in work come forwardence, one of the overall designs of the government of Kenya has been to levy and improve the wellness office of Kenyans. This objective is motivated by the attest that investing in wellness produces cookive push throughcomes in human metropolis that defy long term impacts in the overall socio- economical development of a country (World Bank 1993 Mwabu 1998). In a number of government policy documents and in successive National Development Plans, the government has set onwards that the provision of health go should be available, accessible and affordable to those in some need of health c are (sessional paper No. 10 of 1965 KHPFP, unhomogeneous Development Plans).Different health financing policy initiatives cave in been undertaken in Kenya, all aimed largely at addressing affordability and access to health care services. universalistic free health for all policy saw a fast expansion of the healthcare infrastructure, pickyly in the 1970s and 1980s, and advances in health and social indicators. During this period, health financing system was supported primarily via command tax revenue. With the growing population and worsening socio-economic and political factors, a heartbreaking crisis of health and social development unraveled in the 1990s (UNDP 2002). As a result of the crisis, the governments objectives and commitments to free healthcare provision for all eroded dramatically forcing it to im plement a speak to-sharing purpose in 1989. User fees were abolished for outpatient care in 1990, inspired by concerns most social comelyice, but re-introduced in 1992 beca engross of budgetary constraints. Today, these fees have remained, with their impact on access to health care the capable of several empirical studies. The user fee system was significantly adapted in June 2004, when the Ministry of Health stipulated that health care at dispensary and health magnetic core level be free for all citizens, except for a stripped registration fee in government health facilities.Health financing in Kenya is characterized by a tall out of pocket expending. The one-year Health Sector Statistics Report (2008), indicate that the out of pocket expenditure as a proportion of total expenditure stands at 36% while human race expenditure as a proportion of total health expenditure is 29% per cent. 31 per cent of the total health expenditure comes from the development partners while t he private companies contribute 3%. This diversity of scenario get downs access to health a big problem for the majority of the batch be minuscule the poverty line that constitute about 45.9 per cent of the population. correspond to the 2007 Kenya Household Expenditure check into, 37.7% of Kenyans who were ill and did non operatek care were hindered by cost. Health amends is emerging as the well-nigh preferred gradation of health financing machine in situations where private out-of-pocket expenditures on health are significantly high and cost recovery strategies alter the access to healthcare. The need for health restitution in Kenya has been recognized by policymakers for quite just about time now, as exemplified by the establishment of NHIF in 1966 by means of an coif of Parliament. The most significant event in the young past has been the governments interest in social health policy as a health financing method and its possible implementation in Kenya. The aim is to ensure equity and access to healthcare services by all Kenyans.Despite the recognition of the importance of health amends by the government, the number of people in Kenya ciphered in health amends schemes is low (KNBS, 2009). In view of this, there is need to carry out a get hold of on factors determining choice of health redress.Overview of Health Insurance in KenyaKimani et al (2004) put forward that health policy in Kenya has been provided by both private and public systems. The main objective of the health systems has been to insure Kenyans against health risks that they whitethorn encounter in future.The broad categories of health redress in Kenya are as discussed belowPrivate health care InsuranceHealth indemnification is considered private when the terzetto party (insurer) is a increase organisation (Republic of Kenya, 2003a). In private insurance, people pay premiums colligate to the evaluate cost of providing services to them, that is, people who are in hi gh health risk groups pay more than, and those at low risk pay less. Cross-subsidy surrounded by people with different risks of ill health is limited. Membership of a private insurance scheme is usually voluntary.Private health insurance has been offered by planetary insurance firms, which offer healthcare insurance as one of their portfolio of products. Therefore, their intention may be driven by the profit motive as business enterprises rather that the pursuit to promote the general health of Kenyans.Wangombe et al (1994) identify twain categories of private health insurance in Kenya direct private health insurance and, employment put together insurance. Nderitu (2002) notes that direct private health insurance is very expensive and further the middle and high-income groups afford it In the employment-based plans, the employer provides care directly through with(predicate) employer-owned on site health facility, or through employer contracts with health facilities or healt hcare organisations. These are both voluntary health schemes and are not legislated by the government.According to Techlink International Report (1999), few firms provide healthcare insurance in the strict sense of insurance in private healthcare insurance in Kenya. The general insurance firms offering healthcare insurance as one of their portfolio of products include American Life Insurance party (ALICO), Apollo Insurance, GMD Kenya, Kenya Alliance Insurance Comp each Ltd, and UAP Provincial Insurance. Other firms run aesculapian schemes and they are in twain categories the first category provides healthcare through own clinics and hospitals (these include AAR Health Services, Avenue Healthcare Ltd, Comprehensive health check Services, Health Plan Services), while the some other category provides healthcare through third party facilities (examples are Bupa International, Health Management Services and Health First International). These medical schemes are alike known as Healt h Management Organisations (HMOs). HMOs are registered as companies under the Companies do. The concept originated in the US, where HMOs also help the government to disseminate preventive messages to the public. They were introduced in Kenya a tenner ago in response to a 1994 Government call on the private sector to assist in medical care. HMOs are choice a vacuum left by the public health insurance scheme. In HMOs, the patient pays a fixed annual fee, called a capitation fee, to cover the medical cost. Members of a HMO must go to the doctors of that HMO. In addition, to see a specialist, their HMO family doctor must refer them. HMOs have liberal rapidly especially in the last few years, especially among those who are covered by employer-provided health plans, mainly because they have helped contain cost increases.National Hospital Insurance computer storage (NHIF)The NHIF was established by an Act of Parliament in 1966 as a department in the Ministry of Health, which oversaw i ts operations, but responsible to the government Treasury for fiscal matters. The breed was set up to provide for a national contributory hospital insurance scheme for all house physicians in Kenya. The Act establishing the NHIF provided for the enrolment in the NHIF of all Kenyans between the ages of 18 and 65 and mandates employers to deduct premium from wages and salaries. Contributions and membership are compulsory for all salaried employees earning a net salary of Kshs. gibibyte per month and above. The level of contribution is graduated according to income, ranging from Ksh 30 to Ksh 320 per month.The Fund covers up to 180 inpatient hospital days per member and his/her beneficiaries per year. besides world self-financing and self-administering, the Fund monitors its own collections and distributes benefits to providers. The NHIF Act also provides for the Fund to make loans from its reserves to hospitals for service improvement.Over the years, the original Act of Parliame nt has been reviewed to beseem the changing healthcare needs of the Kenyan population, employment and restructuring in the health sector. The government restructured the NHIF Act in 1998 to make the Fund an autonomous parastatal. The summit of NHIF is no longer the Ministry but a Board of Directors. The Fund was minded(p) the task of enabling as m some(prenominal) Kenyans as possible to have access to forest and affordable healthcare against a background of revolt medical costs and a dwindling share of resources.According to the revise NHIF Act, beneficiaries are both in-patients and outpatients (section 22 of NHIF Act, 1998), but outpatient services are not yet operational. NHIF Management Board pays benefits to declared hospitals for expenses incurred at those hospitals by any contributor, his/her named spouse, child or other named dependant. According to the NHIF Act, the benefits payable from the Fund are limited to expenses incurred in respect of drugs, laboratory tests a nd diagnostic services, surgical, dental, or medical procedures or equipment, physiotherapy care and doctors fees, food and boarding costs (Republic of Kenya, 1999).though the NHIF is meant to be a health insurance scheme after the amendment of the NHIF Act in 1998, it is still a hospital insurance scheme since it all pays for inpatient services only. Currently, NHIF pays more than half of a typical inpatient bill in private-for-profit sector in urban areas. Although benefit range have been increased since the onset of the cost-sharing programme, the Funds reimbursement levels remain a teeny-weeny proportion of the total costs of care in many for-profit facilitiesThe relevancy of NHIF has been questioned in the light of access and affordability of healthcare for the poor, together with its coverage. It is for this reason that the Kenyan Government has proposed a scheme that is supposed to address fundamental concerns regarding equity, access, affordability and tincture in the pr ovision of health services in Kenya.National cordial Health Insurance FundThe proposed mandatory social health insurance scheme, seeks to transform the NHIF into a National Social Health Insurance Fund (NSHIF) to provide health insurance cover to both outpatients and inpatients. The main objective of the Fund is to facilitate the provision of accessible, affordable and quality healthcare services to all its members irrespective of their age, economic or social status (Republic of Kenya, 2003b).It depart be compulsory for every Kenyan and every permanent resident to become a member through enrolment and payment of a subscription either monthly or annually, or as may be deemed convenient to different socio-economic groups. Subscriptions for the poor go forth be give for with funds from the government and other sources.The underway cost sharing fees will be replaced by pre-paid contribution into the novel scheme. Some of the services that the members will make love under the new outpatient cover include general consultation with general practitioners prescribed laboratory tests/investigations drugs/medicines prescribed X-rays and ultra sound diagnosis give-and-take of Sexually Transmitted Infections (STIs) Treatment, dressing or diagnostic testing family mean ante-natal and post-natal care clinical counseling services health and wellness rearing (Ministry of Health, 2004a)Statement of the ProblemHealth insurance is an institutional and financial mechanism which is seen as one option of obtaining additional resources for the financing of health care without deterring the poor and the vulnerable group from seeking care when they need it. It has the potentiality of generating authentic funds for equitable health care. Governments funds so rescue could then be diverted to the development and expansion of primary health care services and other infrastructure. It is a way of improving quality and access to health care as well as managing resources more eff iciently.Health insurance helps familys and private mortals to set aside financial resources to meet costs of medical care in event of illness. It is based on the principle of pooling funds and entrusting management of such(prenominal) funds to a third party (government, employer or insurance company or a provider) that pays for healthcare costs of members who contribute to the pool.Lack of health insurance promotes deferment in seeking care, non-compliance of the treatment regime and results in an overall poor health outcome (Hadley, 2002).Tropical diseases, especially malaria and tuberculosis have long been a public problem in Kenya. However, Beyond grappling with a persistent high burden of infectious disease, including malaria, HIV/AIDS, and tuberculosis, Kenya faces an emerging chronic diseases problem characterized by increasing rates of cardiovascular disease, cancers, and diabetes. Since the 1990s some of Kenyas proto(prenominal) achievements in health have begun to rever se Over the past two decades life expectancy has declined to 53 years, and mortality among children under the age of phoebe bird has risen slightly.In Kenya, only about 10% of the population has some form of health insurance (KNBS, 2010 Republic of Kenya, 2009 Kinuthia, 2002). Coverage has remained the same since 2003. This implies that a huge segment of Kenyans are still not covered indeed the burden of paying bills lies with themselves or through fund raising. In addition, most of the insurance firms are located in urban areas where a substantial number of population can afford as compared to rural areas.With the current debate on the introduction of National Social Health insurance, there is need to examine the factors which affect individuals determinations of enrolling in health insurance scheme. advise of the StudyThe purpose of this study is to identify the factors that influence choice of health insurance among Kenyans.Specific ObjectivesTo evaluate socio-economic factors influencing choice of health insurance in Kenya.To determine the role of information on the choice factors of health insurance in Kenya.To determine how location factor influences the choice of health insurance in Kenya.Make policy recommendationsChapter twoLITERATURE REVIEW hypothetic frameworkThe theory of fill for health insurance is based on expected utility theory ofThe standard economic theory of behavior under uncertainty is well known riskaverse individuals will pay to avoid severe financial consequences of the unfortunatestate of the world. In some markets, that willingness to pay to avoid risk leads to theexistence of contingent contracts, or insurance markets. In the health insurance context,the unfortunate state of the world can be described as the event of illness or fear ofillness serious enough to require an individual or family to pay the full cost of requisiteand efficacious medical care solely out of current income or riches. Risk averseindividuals approach a ctuarially fair prices will fully insure, but with unavoidable loadingcosts in the real world, individuals prefer incomplete insurance. The optimal stage ofcoverage in the face of loading costs is increasing in the degree of risk aversion.Ones degree or intensity of risk aversion to not having health insurance can bereasonably posited to depend upon wealthinessiness (W), because the potential financial loss fromcatastrophic illness is increasing in wealth, although after a very high threshold level ofwealth is reached, risk aversion may decline again education (ED), because moreeducated people know the consequences of not having insurance, they know thelikelihood of leave health care being efficacious, and they also may have moreconfidence that they can obtain efficacious care within any insurance and deliverysystem income (Y), because financial protection both of wealth and of current income or consumption streams is a normal good family status (FS), since parents andmarried partners may be more promising to seek coverage for family members whom theycare about and/or for whom they feel responsible other access to insurance(OTHER_ESI, ELIG), since the cheer placed on any particular insurance option may bedifferent if one is married to a worker whose employer offers coverage, or if some familymember(s) is(are) eligible for public insurance health status (HS) of everyone in thefamily comprehend risk (RISK) to health status, increasing in age and other sometimesobservable clinical factors which we summarize with _, so that RISK = RISK(age,_)gender (SEX), since men and women have different health use profiles and then,contingent on a health shock that requires an intervention, ones aversion to the risk ofillness also depends upon expected expenditures (EX) and the variance of possibleexpenditures (_EX). These expenditure functions depend upon the quantity (C) andquality (q) of medical care that may be necessary (and efficacious) as well as theexpected pri ce of each building block of that medical care (PC). Note, when it comes to riskaversion and demand for health insurance, the expected value of necessary medical careis not more great than the variance of that potential demand or need for medical care,i.e., the speed bound of potentially required medical care affects demand. In other words,the first two moments of the health services utilization and expenditure scatteringmatter, a priori, to insurance demand.We go steady it useful to think about an individuals demand for health insurancehaving two classes of arguments those that reflect influences on the prejudiced value ofinsurance coverage per se, and those that determine the net price to the consumer. Fromthe above, one may summarize the value of a particular package of health benefits, V(Bi),ERIU workings Paper 36asV(Bi) = V(W, ED, Y, FS, OTHER_ESI, ELIG, HS, RISK, SEX, EX(C,q,PC), _EX).Let the price of health insurance (to the individual) be P*. Health insurance demand f or aparticular package of benefits is thenHId = 0 if V(Bi) HId 0 if V(Bi) _ P*. and so we have the truism, people will be uninsured if the value to them of the insurancebenefit package they can buy is less than the price they have to pay. We also note theobvious that those which value health insurance the most are likely to buy the most of it,conditional on a given price. This concept of V(B) is similar to Pauly and Herringsnotion of reservation price for health insurance (Pauly and Herring, 2002, forthcoming),and V(B) P* is similar to consumer surplus.An interesting feature of health insurance markets is that some of those with thehighest V(B) are also those most likely to make choices such as seeking jobs fromemployers that offer health insurance that lead them to find the lowest prices of healthinsurance (P*). Thus purchasers of insurance are likely to obtain substantial consumersurplus. Other people with high demand distinguish those who expect to be very sick areunable t o work. They ofttimes either qualify for public programs or end up veneering very highprices in the private non-group insurance market, and sometimes can find no one willingto sell insurance to them at any actuarially fair price.3 Therefore, it is difficult to sustainthe interpretation that observed prices paid in health insurance markets reflectequilibrium marginal subjective values of having health insurance.my argument is that3Pollitz K, R Sorian, and K Thomas, How Accessible is various(prenominal) Health Insurance for Consumers inLess-Than-Perfect Health? Report to the Henry J. Kaiser Family Foundation, June 2001.buyers have CS, so nobodys marginal utility is revealed in these markets. I inserted anew CS sentence above.The arguments in our expressions of health insurance demand are useful forgeneral expressions of demand, but we also need to make clear that some eligible peopledo not enroll in insurance even though the financial cost is nil . This would not seempossible from our characterization of health insurance demand. The cardinal point isthat P* in our framework represents more than just monetary cost. P* includes time costand any disutility from an enrollment process that is perceived as burdensome orembarrassing (e.g. some say a kind of stigma is associated with Medicaid since it was forso long associated with people on cash assistance). We explain more in section 4 what isknown about the ways P* exceeds vigour for various public insurance programs with zeronominal fees.2.2 SociallyEmpirical LiteratureKirigia et al (2005), exploitation info from the 1994 South African Health Inequalities Survey (SANHIS) examined the kinship between health insurance ownership and the demographic, economic and educational characteristics of South African women. Applying binary star logistic regression technique, they found out that environmental rating, residence, smoking and matrimonial status variables ascertain health insurance coverage.The 2002 Jamaic an Survey of life-time Conditions was used to model the determinants of private health insurance coverage. Bourne and Kerr-Campbell (2010), using logistic regression to estimate the determinants of health insurance coverage, found out that social standing, durable goods, income, matrimonial status, area of residence, education, social support, crowding, psychological conditions, privacy benefits, living arrangements, the number of males in the home base and good health determined health insurance coverage.Nketiah-Amponsah (2009) investigated the determinants of public health insurance among women aged 15-49 in Ghana using primary information collected in tierce districts in Ghana in 2008. development the logit model the paper concludes that marital status, income, age, religion and access to television and newspapers are the most significant determinants of womens insurance coverage. In addition, health inputs like medical personnel and health infrastructure increase demand for health insurance and health care. Another study using primary data was conducted in Ghana by Sarpong et al (2010) to explore the association between socio-economic status and subscription to the Ghanaian National Health Insurance Scheme (NHIS). Applying logistic regression, they concluded that economic well being and distance to the closest health facility were important determinants of National health insurance coverage.Gius (2010), using data from the 2008 National Health Interview Survey (NHIS) estimated the logistic model for determinants of health insurance coverage for young adults. They posit that socioeconomic factors among them, age, sex, race, employment, area of residence, cost of insurance and beliefs held about health insurance are important in determining the health insurance coverage.In Malawi, Makoka et al (2007), based on a logistic regression found income and education as significant determinants of private health care where public health services are free. Thi s study used primary data collected from Blantyre and Zomba cities in 2003.A working paper study by Bhat and Jain (2006) examined factors affecting the demand for health insurance in a micro health insurance scheme setting. EstimatingTakeuchi et al (1998) estimating the logistic model for factors associated with health insurance coverage among Chinese Americans in Los Angeles county found out that marital status, length of stay in the United States, education, employment and household income were important factors determining health insurance coverage.Hopkins and Kidd (1992), utilizing data from the 1989-90 National Health Survey examined the socio-economic variables which influence the demand for health insurance under medicare in Australia using the binary logit model. They conclude that age, income, health status, material wellbeing and geographical location are important determinants of decision to purchase insurance.Owando (2006) carried out a study on factors influencing the demand for health insurance in Kenya. Using the probit model, they found out that age, self evaluated health status, marital status, income, level of educational attainment, household size, risk behavior and employment status were important determinants of health insurance ownership in Kenya.CHAPTER 3METHODOLOGYTheoretical textileThis study borrows heavily from the demand theory. Health Insurance is treated just like any other good. Hence, demand for health insurance should be affected by variables such as price of the commodity, price of think commodities, income, tastes and preferences among others.The demand equation for health insurance is modeled as follows impersonate SpecificationThe decision to buy health insurance will be formulated in two interrelated choices. First, the choice is related to the decision to buy or not the health insurance. Since the pendent variable takes two forms, will use binary logit model to study this choice. Theory and old empirical work (Kirigi a et al ,2005 Bourne and Kerr-Campbell, 2010) suggest that the probability that an individual owns a health insurance is conditional on several socio economic variables including age, education, area of residence, household size, occupation, marital status, health status among others.In this study, the relationship between the binary status variable and its determinants is specified as followsWhere are the following independent variables age, sex, marital status, area of residence, level of education, proxy measures for economic welfare (land ownership availability of electricity, characteristics of dwelling place), knowledge (access to radio, television and newspaper), household size, occupation, health status (HIV and Tuberclosis), cigarette smoking.The second step, if the decision to buy insurance is positive is to focus attention to the types of health insurance, that is, community based health insurance, health insurance trough employer, social security and private health insur ance. This can be handled by applying a polychotomous model, more in particular a multinomial logit model. This approach is justifiable because the categories refer to choices being make that are mutually exclusive.The regression model is expressed as follows entropy Sources and VariablesThe study will utilize field methodology in which alternate data relating to the issue under investigation will be obtained from the 2008-09 Kenya demographic Health Survey (KDHS). This is a nationally representative sample survey of 8,444 women aged between 18-44 years and 3465 men aged between 15 and 54 years of age selected from 400 sample points (clusters) throughout Kenya. information collection was done from the month of November, 2008 and February, 2009.Dependent and Independent variableThe dependent variable will be health insurance ownership. For purposes of coding the health insurance ownership outcome

Epidemiology in relation to health promotion

Epidemiology in analogy to wellness advance handstThis assignment testament define epidemiology, list and signalize some of its main aspects and assess the significance of those aspects for their effect on wellness forwarding. The employment of lung crabby person testament be use throughout.DefinitionEpidemiology is the instruct of how maladys be distributed among existences and the doers that affect this distribution. Epidemiologists try to predict attempt factors that may be joinn to a position disorder and identify st setgies that could be used to forbid its occurrence. (Naidoo Wills 2008 4)The following questions drive epidemiologyWho becomes disturbed or is around seeming to be affected?Why do particular pile become sick?When ar people most likely to be affected?Where has the complaint occurred or is most likely to occur?How effective are getable treatments and preventative strategies?(Crichton Mulhall in Naidoo Wills 200874)Epidemiology has the fol lowing main aimsTo describe patterns of unsoundness in the population, or the disease distribution, across age, gender and geography.To indentify the aetiology, or determinant, of the disease risk factors or prior events associated with the appearance of the disease or condition.To analyse frequency, or how many cases occur, over a given period.To provide the entropy involve for the planning of preventative notes and treatment.Epidemiology is concerned with rates the focussing is on groups leave officee an than individuals and aims to highlight trends. (Naidoo Wills 200874)Epidemiology has two main approachesDescriptive Epidemiology is concerned with the patterns of distribution of disease according to people, institutionalise and time and uses deathrate and morbidity statistics as soundly as population data.Analytical epidemiology explores cause and risk factors and asks why did it overhaul?Successful prevention rests on identifying risk factors which can be teeny-wee nyen or eliminated.(Hubley Copeman, 200840)HistoryIn the past epidemiology has helped to explain the transmission of diseases, such(prenominal) as cholera and measles, by discovering factors shared by individuals who became sick. Modern epidemiologists set about contributed to an understanding of factors that influence the risk of heart disease and malignant neoplastic disease, which account for most terminations in developed countries today. Epidemiology has established the causative association of cigarette ingest with heart disease and lung pubic louse shown that AIDS is associated with certain sexual practices and exhibit the value of mammography in reducing breast cancer mortality. (Sci Tech, 2009)Aspects of EpidemiologyAn aspect is a part or facet of a particular subject area.Aspects of epidemiology which will be assessed are as follows mortality and morbidity rates, statistical analysis, age bracket studies, correlation, causation and questionnaire/survey.Mortality an d morbidity rates.Mortality rate is a measure of the public figure of deaths (in general, or due to a specific cause) in a population. Data is collected from the compulsory registration of death and its cause. Cause is the disease or injury which initiated the train of events leading to death. Information can be divided according to age, gender and cause.Morbidity rates are all the number of new cases of a disease (incidence) or all cases at a point in time (prevalence). Data is collected from hospitals and GPs and includes cancer registrations, notification of infectious disease, sexually transmitted disease, HIV/AIDS and noninheritable anomalies. (T unitarys Green 200845).A central tool of epidemiology is rate comparison population data collected by census is used for this purpose.Lung cancer figures underpin that lung cancer has an enormous impact on national mortality and currently accounts for 7% of all deaths and 22% of all deaths from cancer in the UKincidence ratesLung cancer UKMalesFe potentsPersons human activity of new cases (UK 2006)22,38116,64639,027Rate per 100,000 population*60.837.147.4Number of deaths (UK 2007)19,63714,87234,509Rate per 100,000 population*51.531.340.1One-year survival rate (for patients diagnosed 2004-2006**, England)27%30%Five-year survival rate (for patients diagnosed 2001-2006**, England)7%9%(Cancer Research UK)Cohort studiesA sample of people is followed overtime and their modus vivendi and exposure to hazards and the incidence of disease is monitored. A cohort of people has a characteristic in mutual e.g. the same disease or the same employer.CausationThe investigation of a relationship between one event and another by unhurriedness up a body of evidence. A number of methods are used to investigate causation including cohort studies. Relative risk is the ratio of the rate of a disease to the number of those exposed to a risk factor. It indicates how likely it is that an individual exposed to a particular environm ental or lifestyle factor will go on to develop a particular disease.Lung cancer The most famous example of a cohort knowledge was the British Doctors cohort study. Dr Richard Doll enlisted forty thousand male Doctors and followed them for cubic decimetre years. The results published in the 1950s showed that many more Doctors who stackd went on to develop lung cancer than those who did not.. The study provided clear evidence for a causal link between consume and lung cancer. (Hubley Copeman 2008).CorrelationCorrelation is a statistical measurement of the relationship between two variables.Lung cancer query has shown a correlation between fume and well-disposed class with people of less affluent groups ingest more. Correlation has alike been exhibit between the smoking habits of close family members vernal people are more likely to fruit up the habit if their parents locoweed.(Ewles2005)Questionnaire and surveyA set of questions addressed to a statistically prodigiou s number of subjects as a way of convocation information.Lung Cancer The 2005 general household survey indicated that manual workers start to smoke at an earlier age, with 48% of men and 40% of women in manual occupations regularly smoking by 16, compared with 33% of men and 28% of women in managerial and professional occupations. (Cancer Research UK)Statistical analysisUsed to run into likelihoods or probabilities.Lung Cancer Statistical Analysis provides a wealth of data and information. Available smoking statistics include incidence of cancer linked to number of cigarettes smoked per day and history of smoking. Also smoking statistics by age, socio-economic group, heathen group, geographical variations and children are published.As an example, this graph illustrates the prevalence of smoking by age over three decades and shows the decline following the linking of smoking with cancer and the subsequent wellness advance programme.Today, tobacco consumption is recognised as th e UKs single greatest cause of preventable illness and betimes death with more than 114,000 people dying each year from smoking-related diseases including cancers. (Cancer research UK, 2009) in front line the dangers of cigarette smoking were widely known, smoking prevalence varied little by socio-economic group. Today at that place are clear differences due to the derivative instrument decline in smoking by kind class that occurred in the 1970s and 1980s. By 2007, 25% of adults in manual occupations smoked compared to 16% of those in non-manual occupations.(Cancer research UK)The influence of these aspects of epidemiology on health promotion utilise lung cancer and smoking as an example.The World Health Organisation (WHO) defines health promotion as the process of enabling people to add tone down over and to improve their health.The mortality rates for cancer in general, and in particular lung cancer, highlight this as a health issue of significant importance and worthy of focus and resources.The Doll cohort study demonstrated the correlation between smoking and lung cancer. Naidoo Wills in Key Topics in earthly concern Health say, The single most critical area for action to clip cancer is smoking.It is estimated that 1 in 2 smokers will die of a smoking related illness. If current smokers can be encouraged to quit mortality will be reduced discouraging young people from starting to smoke will reduce smoking-related deaths during the second half of the twenty- graduation exercise century. (Cancer Research UK)Health promotion to reduce the levels of lung cancer has therefore focused on smoking cessation.Health promotion strategies have three components education, benefit improvement and advocacy. Using lung cancer and its correlation with smoking as the example againEducation involves increasing awareness of the risks, the benefits of quitting and practical ways of stopping. attend to improvement involves actions of primary care such as clinics an d availability of nicotine patches. advocacy involves enforcement of controls such as laws preventing sale of cigarettes to under 18s and the veto on smoking in public places. (Hebley Copeman, 2008)Statistics show which groups are more likely to smoke and the greater degree of risk they face. The correlation between smoking and social class, indicated by the Household survey, highlighted that smoking rates are highest amongst manual workers. The emergency to target this group is recognised in the Government white authorship Choosing Health Making Healthier Choices Easier which sets a target for reduction of smoking prevalence in this group. Smoking is a key contributory factor to health inequalities between socio-economic groups in the UK and accounts for a major part of the differences in life expectancy between manual and non-manual groups and is a key focus of the current government. (Department of Health, 2009)Other current priorities are the very young who are at risk of up take and the problem of passive smoking.Evidence suggests a correlation between young people smoking and the smoking habits of their parents. people who start to smoke in their teens do so because they adopt the social pattern of their family. The habit quickly becomes an addiction, which is very difficult to break. It is easier to stop a young person from starting to smoke than getting someone to quit. proper(postnominal) measures are in place to focus on the very young including the banning of sales to under 18s. This group is also highly influenced by advertising and as a result TV advertising has been outlawed.The effectuate of passive smoking on children, in particular, have been highlighted in a graphic T.V. campaign which demonstrates to parents the harm they are causing their children.Examples of other, current, health promotion initiatives aimed at smoking cessation include* Point of sale promotion has been severely restricted.* In July 200, the advertising of cigarettes at sporting events, including Formula 1, was banned.* On July 1st 2007, it became illegal to smoke in a public place or workplace including pubs.* All cigarette packets must carry a health warning covering a specific percentage of the front and back of the packet.* Media campaigns have been graphic and disturbing. The fish hook advert highlighted the despotic nature of tobacco.Primary Care Trusts run cessation programmes, one to one support, group sessions, quit smoking helpline, education events in schools and provide free people nicotine patches.The government levies ever increasing taxation on cigarettes to increase prices and give a financial incentive to individuals to quit. (Ewles, 200563)October 2009, MPs agreed a ban on cigarette vending machines. (BBC News, 2009)Annual no-smoking day. (Nosmokingday,2009)Epidemiological research also confirms the success, or otherwise, of health promotion strategies.Between 1970-2000, British men undergo the most rapid decrease in death r ates from lung cancer in the world as a result of the success of the health promotion measures and smokers quitting the habit.(Ewles 2005)In the early 1900s, lung cancer was a rare disease causing fewer than 10 male deaths annually in either 100,000 men.By the 1950s, the lung cancer death rate had risen six-fold, prompting the first epidemiologic study that linked tobacco smoking and lung cancer in Britain. By the 1980s, the death rate for lung cancer was over 100 per 100,000 men. From the early 1980s onwards, following extensive focus of efforts on smoking cessation, the male lung cancer mortality rates have fallen continuously.The striking mortality trends by age over the past fifty years for men in England and Wales are shown below(Cancer Research UK)ConclusionBy identifying factors that increase the risk of disease, epidemiologists provide crucial input into the formulation of public health policy. (Sci Tech, 2009)Measuring health is important for health promotion as it establi shes priorities, assists in planning, enables prioritization of actions with high-risk groups, justifies use of resources and demonstrates the efficiency (or otherwise ) of health promotion initiatives. (Naidoo Wills, 2009).In many studies a categorical answer is never produced as there is never 100% proof of the outcomes, only evidence to suggest. For example, not everyone who smokes will contract lung cancer and some non-smokers do contract the disease. (Naidoo Wills, 2005)The epidemiological research which proved the link between smoking and lung cancer, and the subsequent health promotion strategies, have reduced the prevalence of smoking and consequently the incidence of lung cancer significantly over the last thirty years.Health promotion priorities and strategies are continually reviewed as new evidence to suggest is produced from ongoing epidemiological research.

Thurgood Marshall Essay examples -- History Lawyer Marshall Biographie

Thurgood marshallAfter the Reconstruction period, African Americans had won freedom and no longer were seen as processions of the albumenman, although, something even more venomous existed, segregation. This problem made life for many black people an ever-continuing struggle. disastrous people were forced to attend separate schools, churches, hotels, and even restaurants. At the time, white males dominated the work force and many African Americans rarely gear up well paying jobs. The court system judged people of color more harshly than people of white skin, which led to unfair sentences and kills. A lynching is when a person is hanged or executed without a trial they were in truth common during this time period. African Americans could only take so some(prenominal) of this, they cried out against the unequal ways that white people practiced. Foundations were formed to attention these people and bring justice to the society they were living in. The NAACP (National Associatio n for the rise of Colored People) was probably the most significant of these foundations. This was the same organization that Thurgood Marshall became the leading lawyer of. Thurgood Marshall was born in the year of 1908 in Baltimore, Maryland. He was prepped and raised by his mother, Norma Arica Marshall, and his father, William Canfield Marshall. Thurgoods mother was one of the first African Americans to graduate from Colombia University and his father was the first black person to serve on Baltimores grand jury in the...

Building A Radio Empire :: essays research papers fc

"Media do not simply present cultural products for consumption they volunteer much of the stuff of every day life through which we fabricate meaning and organize our existence."--Michael R. Real, Super MediaDEFINING MOMENTS IN MASS MEDIA     Newspapers. Media began with the pen word . . . To date, the oldest existing written document dates back to 2200 B.C. By vitamin D B.C. Persia had developed a form of pony express and the Greeks had a electrify system consisting of trumpets, drums, shouting, beacon fires, smoke signals, and mirrors transmitting a form of discourse to the masses. In 200 B.C. the Chinese circulated the premier(prenominal) newspaper, the Tipao gazette, to government officials. Newsletters began circulating in Europe by 1450. Over 150 years later, in 1609, the first regularly published newspaper was circulated in Germany. Advertising began to shape the media constancy by 1631 with the first classified ads featured in a French news paper. And, in 1833 a New York newspaper was sold for one penny, enabling this media to reach a mass market.      Radio. At first there was the print, and and so there was sound . . . In 1821 an English man named Wheatstone reproduced sound. However, the future of radio set didnt really begin until 1890 when Branly transmitted the first radio waves in France. In 1901 the American Marconi Company, the forerunner of RCA, sent radio signals across the Atlantic. And louvre years later, a program of voice and music was get off in the United States.      In 1907 DeForest began a regular radio broadcast featuring music. In 1909 the first talk-radio format, covering womens suffrage, was broadcast. And in 1912, the United States carnal knowledge passed a law to regulate radio stations. In 1917 the first radio station, KDKA, was built and in 1920 the first scheduled programs on KDKA were broadcast. The going number for ten minutes of commercial airtime was $100. By 1924, the first sponsored radio program, The Eveready Hour, began. In that same year there were two and a half meg radio sets in the United States.      The 1930s are characterized as the sumptuous Age of radio. In 1929 automobile manufacturers began installing radios in cars. In 1933 Armstrong sight FM waves. And in 1934, the government passed the Communications Act, creating the Federal Communications management (FCC). In that same year, half of all American homes had at least(prenominal) one radio set. In 1935 A.C.